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The goal of ENVIRO.wiki is to make scientific and engineering research results more accessible to environmental professionals, facilitating the permitting, design and implementation of environmental projects. Articles are written and edited by invited experts (see Contributors) to summarize current knowledge for the target audience on an array of topics, with cross-linked references to reports and technical literature.

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Featured article: PFAS Ex Situ Water Treatment

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The ultraviolet (UV)/sulfite based reductive defluorination process has emerged as an effective and practical option for generating hydrated electrons (e_aq^- ) which can destroy per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in water. A UV/sulfite treatment system has been demonstrated in two field demonstrations in which it achieved near-complete defluorination and greater than 99% destruction of 40 PFAS analytes measured by EPA method 1633. Hydrated electrons can be produced by photoirradiation of solutes, including sulfite, iodide, dithionite, and ferrocyanide, and have been reported in literature to effectively decompose per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in water. The hydrated electron is one of the most reactive reducing species, with a standard reduction potential of about −2.9 volts. Though short-lived, hydrated electrons react rapidly with many species having more positive reduction potentials. Under the Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) Project ER21-5152, a field demonstration was conducted at a Navy site on the east coast, and results showed that the technology was highly effective in destroying various PFAS in a liquid concentrate produced from an in situ foam fractionation groundwater treatment system. Another field demonstration was completed at an Air Force base in California, where a treatment train was used to treat PFAS in groundwater. PFAS analytical data and fluoride results demonstrated near-complete destruction of various PFAS. In addition, this demonstration showed: a) high PFAS destruction ratio was achieved in the foam fractionate, even in very high concentration (up to 1,700 mg/L of booster), and b) the effluent was sent back to the influent of the system for further concentration and treatment, resulting in a closed-loop treatment system and no waste discharge.
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Enviro Wiki Highlights

Molecular diffusion slowly transports solutes into clay-rich, lower permeability zones

Typical subgrade biogeochemical reactor (SBGR) layout. The SBGR is an in situ remediation technology for treatment of contaminated source areas and groundwater plume hot spots

An Hydraulic Profiling Tool (HPT) log with electrical conductivity (EC) on left, injection pressure in middle, and flow rate on the right

Diagram of mineral surface exchanging hydrogen ions with varying pH. The surface of most aquifer minerals carries an electrical charge that varies with pH

Comparison of the longitudinal redox zonation concept (A) and the plume fringe concept (B). Both concepts describe the spatial distribution of electron acceptors and respiration processes in a hydrocarbon contaminant plume

Schematic of an Hydraulic Profiling Tool (HPT) probe. HPT were developed to better understand formation permeability and the distribution of permeable and low permeability zones in unconsolidated formations

In situ chemical oxidation using (a) direct-push injection probes or (b) well-to-well flushing to delivery oxidants (shown in blue) into a target treatment zone of groundwater contaminated by dense nonaqueous phase liquid compounds (shown in red)

High-resolution 3D cross-borehole electrical imaging of contaminated fractured rock at the former Naval Air Warfare Center in New Jersey. Cross-borehole resistivity tomography imaging is a geophysical technique that can be used for site characterization and monitoring by observing variations in the electrical properties of subsurface materials

Stable isotope probing (SIP) in use: Loading, deployment and recovery of Bio-Trap® passive sampler with 13C-labeled benzene. Stable isotope probing (SIP) is used to conclusively determine whether in situ biodegradation of a contaminant is occurring

Summary of anticipated, primary reaction pathways for degradation of 1,2,3-Trichloropropane (TCP). TCP is a man-made chemical that was used in the past primarily as a solvent and extractive agent, a paint and varnish remover, and as a cleaning and degreasing agent

Distribution of BTEX plume lengths from 604 hydrocarbon sites. Monitored Natural Attenuation (MNA) is one of the most commonly used remediation approaches for groundwater contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs) and certain fuel additives such as fuel oxygenates or lead scavengers

No-purge and passive sampling methods eliminate the pre-purging step for groundwater sample collection and represent alternatives to conventional sampling methods that rely on low-flow purging of a well prior to collection. The Snap SamplerTM is an example of a passive grab sampler

Conceptualization of Vapor Transport-related Natural Source Zone Depletion (NSZD) processes at a Petroleum Release Site

Conceptual diagram of basic Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) system for vadose zone remediation. (SVE) is a common and typically effective physical treatment process for remediation of volatile contaminants in vadose zone (unsaturated) soils

Emulsified Vegetable Oil (EVO) mixed in field during early pilot test. EVO is commonly added as a slowly fermentable substrate to stimulate the in situ anaerobic bioremediation of chlorinated solvents, explosives, perchlorate, chromate, and other contaminants

Key elements of vapor intrusion pathways

Batch reactor experiments to generate points on a sorption isotherm

Results for metagenomic analysis of a groundwater sample obtained from a site impacted with petroleum hydrocarbons

Perchlorate releases and drinking water detections

Data input screen for ESTCP Mass Flux Toolkit

Amendment addition for biobarrier

Thermal Remediation - Desorption schematic

Key exposure pathways for human health risk from contaminated sediments

The PFAS family of compounds

Table of Contents Attenuation & Transport Processes Biodegradation - 1,4-Dioxane Biodegradation - Cometabolic Biodegradation - Hydrocarbons Biodegradation - Reductive Processes Groundwater Flow and Solute Transport Matrix Diffusion Mobility of Metals and Metalloids pH Buffering in Aquifers Sorption of Organic Contaminants Vapor Intrusion (VI) Vapor Intrusion - Separation Distances from Petroleum Sources Vapor Intrusion – Sewers and Utility Tunnels as Preferential Pathways Characterization, Assessment & Monitoring Characterization Methods – Hydraulic Conductivity Compound Specific Isotope Analysis (CSIA) Direct Push (DP) Technology DP Logging DP Sampling Geophysical Methods Case Studies Groundwater Sampling - No-Purge/Passive Long-Term Monitoring (LTM) LTM Data Analysis LTM Data Variability Molecular Biological Tools (MBTs) Metagenomics Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR) Stable Isotope Probing (SIP) Natural Attenuation in Source Zone and Groundwater Plume - Bemidji Crude Oil Spill Climate Change Climate Change Primer Coastal and Estuarine Ecology Phytoplankton (Algae) Blooms Contaminated Sediments In Situ Treatment of Contaminated Sediments with Activated Carbon Mercury in Sediments Passive Sampling of Sediments Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (LNAPLs) LNAPL Conceptual Site Models LNAPL Remediation Technologies NAPL Mobility Munitions Constituents Alkaline Degradation Composting Deposition Dissolution Passive Sampling Metal(loid)s - Small Arms Ranges Soil Sampling Sorption Toxicology TREECS™ Monitored Natural Attenuation (MNA) MNA of Chlorinated Solvents MNA of Metals and Metalloids MNA of Petroleum Hydrocarbons Natural Source Zone Depletion (NSZD) Transitioning from Active Remedies Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) PFAS Ex Situ Water Treatment PFAS Soil Remediation Technologies PFAS Sources PFAS Transport and Fate Regulatory Issues and Site Management Alternative Endpoints Mass Flux and Mass Discharge Plume Response Modeling REMChlor-MD Source Zone Modeling Sustainable Remediation Remediation Technologies Amendment Distribution in Low Conductivity Materials Anaerobic Bioremediation Design Considerations Design Tool - Base Addition for ERD Emulsified Vegetable Oil (EVO) for Anaerobic Bioremediation Low pH Inhibition of Reductive Dechlorination Secondary Water Quality Impacts In Situ Chemical Oxidation (ISCO) Design Considerations Oxidant Selection In Situ Chemical Reduction (ISCR) Zero-Valent Iron (ZVI) Zerovalent Iron Permeable Reactive Barriers In Situ Groundwater Treatment with Activated Carbon Injection Techniques for Liquid Amendments Injection Techniques - Viscosity Modification Landfarming Remediation of Metals and Metalloids Remediation Performance Assessment at Chlorinated Solvent Sites Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) Stream Restoration Subgrade Biogeochemical Reactor (SBGR) Supercritical Water Oxidation (SCWO) Thermal Remediation Combined Remedies Electrical Resistance Heating (ERH) Smoldering Steam Enhanced Extraction (SEE) Thermal Conduction Heating (TCH) Soil & Groundwater Contaminants 1,4-Dioxane Chlorinated Solvents Metals and Metalloids N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) Perchlorate Petroleum Hydrocarbons (PHCs) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Trichloropropane (TCP)